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Pompeii: Rebirth of a City - History Documentary
Archaeology, as we understand it, didn't exist in 1758 when Johann Joachim Winckelmann made his way from the royal library in Dresden, Germany, to visit another private collection. He wanted to see the King of Naples's museum of statues, salvaged from crude digs at the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, 1700 years after their destruction in the eruption of Vesuvius in AD79. The king's guards refused him entry. But Winckelmann persevered, sneaking into the museum and the excavation sites, until he published an illicit catalogue of the finds that took the civilized world by storm, sparking a new interest in, and understanding of, the classical world. This documentary looks at the changing role of the archaeologist in Pompeii and Herculaneum, as well as a range of modern excavation projects. Features Andrew Wallace-Hadrill. |
EXCAVATIONS AND ARCHAEOLOGY
Herculaneum was not rediscovered until 1594 and serious excavation did not take place until 1709. It was not until 1748 that the first excavation site was opened in Pompeii. To early excavators, Pompeii and Herculaneum were sites to be looted not explored or preserved. Rocco de Alcubierre who excavated at Pompeii in 1748 and later at Herculaneum, seemed more concerned with finding precious objects than preservation and documentation. While archaeologists such as the German Johann Joachim Winckelmann criticised the lack of organisation that existed at the excavation sites, anarchy still existed. It was Karl Weber, director of the excavations at Pompeii in1749 who first proposed that rather than carrying out selective and uncoordinated excavations, they should uncover the site systematically, section by section.
However it was not until 1860 with the appointment of Giuseppi Fiorelli as director of Pompeian excavations, that a more systematic and professional approach was used. Recognising the unparalleled insights that could be gained into the Roman past by careful study of the ruins and all that they contained, Fiorelli set as his goal the total recovery of the vanished city.
A pioneer of modern archaeological methods, Fiorelli instituted a policy of completely clearing one site before moving onto the next, excavating areas between them as well. As Pompeii’s streets, houses, walls and gates began to emerge, Fiorelli developed a grid system and was able to divide the city into regions and blocks (insula) and develop a plan for its systematic recovery from the metres of volcanic debris.
An important feature of Fiorelli’s excavation was his technique of making plaster casts of the dead. Fiorelli pumped liquid plaster into the cavities where flesh and clothing had decayed. This was left to set and the lava chipped away to reveal an accurate plaster cast of the body at the moment of death.
As the digging proceeded, one of Fiorelli’s guiding principles was that new finds, such as frescoes or furniture, be left in place wherever possible. He faithfully documented all his work and set a standard for subsequent excavators.
Fiorelli’s vision of a restored Pompeii encompassed far more work than he could do in his lifetime, but his successors took up both his goal and his disciplined methods of excavation. Foremost among them was the archaeologist Vittorio Spinazzola. From 1910 to 1923, Spinazzola oversaw an ambitious project to uncover the Via dell’Abbondanza. Under his guidance the thoroughfare and the buildings lining it began to take on some of their appearance prior to the eruption.
Following a technique pioneered by Fiorelli, Spinazzola first drilled down to establish the route of the street, then began digging out the structures from above. After removing the debris, he protected any furnishings or frescoes found within buildings and then shored up the walls to prevent them from collapsing when the street itself was cleared.
One of Spinazzola’s outstanding contributions to the restoration of Pompeii was his meticulous reconstruction of the upper stories, windows, balconies and roofs of buildings lining the Via dell’Abbondanza. He was also one of the first archaeologists to document the phases of excavation with photographs.
Amedeo Maiuri was in charge of excavations at Pompeii between 1924 and 1961. He developed a scientific approach to work at Pompeii by excavating the lower levels of the site to provide new evidence of its historical development. He also had greater success than some of his predecessors in restoring houses that had been excavated at various times in the past. From 1924 to 1941 he concentrated on the area around the Via dell’Abbondanza., his main aim being to uncover the insulae on either side of the street.
Maiuri next turned his attention to the southern part of the city between the Via delle Scuole and the Triangular Forum. But Maiuri was not content to pursue his exploration of the buried city as a coherent whole. He felt it was only by deepening the excavations at the most significant, and topographically most important points, the forums, the temples, the city walls and the oldest houses, that they could hope to shed light on the period of the city’s origins.
The appointment of Maiuri also marked the permanent reopening of investigations at Herculaneum. Maiuri abandoned tunnelling and worked methodically from the surface down and held rigorously to the modern practice of leaving as much as possible in place, such as pots on a stove. As the laborious digging proceeded, the town’s character became more apparent, confirming scholar’s speculations.
In September 1943 repeated bombardments by the allies during the war added to the disasters suffered by Pompeii since the earthquake of AD62.
In 1951 work on the site was at last resumed with new resources available. In just over ten years some ten insulae were totally cleared, virtually without documentation let alone publication, and with hardly any of the excavated structures being restored or protected This lead to criticism of his work and techniques. Also buildings excavated in earlier periods continued to decay before being recorded. The increase of tourists, together with worsening atmospheric pollution, exacerbated an already disastrous situation.
Maiuri was succeeded by Alfonso de Franciscis as director of the archaeological service, and he continued with the excavations. In 1977 Fausto Zevi took over as director. He suspended excavation activities and used every available resource for restoration and documentation programs. At Herculaneum, Giuseppi Maggi was director of excavations from 1971 to 1984. In May 1980 his excavation work on the vaulted chambers built into the sea wall revealed more than 150 victims, suggesting that many of the inhabitants may not have survived the catastrophe.
Sara Bisel, an American physical anthropologist and archaeologist who specialised in the analysis of ancient bones, was invited to work in Herculaneum in 1982, to preserve newly found skeletons, excavated by Guiseppe Maggi earlier that year. To Sara Bisel, the well preserved skeletons were just as important as treasures excavated from the sites, particularly as few other skeletons have survived, as the Romans cremated their dead. Her research was valuable as bones indicate much about the people and how they lived.
The skeletons had been well preserved because they had been kept continuously wet by groundwater seeping through the volcanic soil and had not endured temperature or humidity changes. However exposure to air brings about a quick deterioration. Each bone was washed with a soft toothbrush and dried for a few days. Bisel then dipped the bones in an acrylic plastic emulsion and allowed them to dry and harden.
The research by Bisel on dozens of skeletons has provided information about their height, whether they were well nourished, types of diseases and whether the person did manual work for a living. The state of a woman’s pelvis enabled her to determine age and the number of babies she had. An examination of teeth could indicate whether the person had cavities, abscesses or periodontal disease. The research by Bisel has guided artists in fleshing out physical features and portraying how the different people may have looked.
The high level of lead in some of the bones has lead scholars to debate whether lead poisoning could have been widespread among Romans. The most plausible explanation for people having ingested lead via the lead water pipes or from boiling grape syrup in lead vessels.
Estelle Lazer from Sydney University also researched human skeletal remains in Pompeii for evidence of age, sex, height, population affinities and evidence of disease or injury. The research indicated that the victims reflected a broadly representative sample of a normal population. The majority of the deaths were due to asphyxiation, others died of thermal shock caused by the intense heat. Most of the people would have died very quickly. Estelle Lazer made use of modern technology such as CT scans and X- rays, and updated the methods of Fiorelli by using translucent resin instead of plaster.
The American vulcanologist Haraldur Sigurdsson studied the volcanic deposits at Pompeii and Herculaneum in his research on the timing and nature of the eruption in 79AD. The study of the skeletal remains and the way they lay in the strata provided key material for his investigation. The account by Pliny the Elder gave geologic information as to what was happening first at Pompeii and later at Herculaneum. They correlate with data made possible by new vulcanological concepts developed in the 1970s and corroborated since the eruption of Mount St. Helens in the USA. Each phase of the eruption deposits a stratum with a characteristic range of grain sizes. To Sigurdsson grain sizes are the fingerprints of an eruption. They were the ‘bones’ he could investigate.
A Pompeian expert from the University of Maryland in the USA, Professor Wilhelmina Jashemski, spent thirty five years from the 1970’s reconstructing the histories of the city’s gardens and solving the mystery of the Garden of Hercules. She believed that this was a garden where blooms were used for perfumes. Through a careful recovery of surviving pollen grains, as well as carbonised seeds, fruits, vegetables, stems, and traces of root systems, she has enabled botanists to identify the plants Pompeians grew for pleasure, food and profit. Her methods were similar to archaeologists who used impressions left in the debris when bodies decayed to make casts of ancient roots. What Jashemski could not glean from the analysis of roots and other physical remains, she learnt from botanical imagery found in Pompeian art. Samples of soil sent by Jashemski for testing to Professor G W Dimbleby at London University, identified 21 different kinds of pollen grains, but weed pollen was almost entirely absent.
The work of archaeologists and conservationists has also been enhanced by the use of infra-red photography, 3D laser scan technology, spectrographic analysis, x-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, neutron activation analysis, high resolution digital cameras to create a three dimensional model, and sophisticated computer technology.
The excavation of Pompeii and Herculaneum has raised a number of important issues. There is the issue of whether archaeologists should reconstruct a site or leave it as they found it. While the reconstruction of a site may be an act of preservation there is the issue of just how authentic a reconstruction can be. There is also the issue of the types of material used in the reconstruction and the actual methods used. Restoration work requires knowledge of specialised techniques. These conditions have not always been met. There is evidence that restoration work, using for example poor quality concrete and mortar, has actually hastened the deterioration of buildings at both Pompeii and Herculaneum.
In both these sites excavation has been carried on for well over two hundred years with excavators of differing standards, aims and methods. In the early days of excavation, little thought was given to safeguarding a site from damage. Diggers were little more than treasure hunters with little regard for conservation.
Both Pompeii and Herculaneum suffer from tourism and pollution. Millions of visitors visit the sites each year. These visitors inevitably walk around the sites, wearing down footpaths as well as exposed ancient lead pipes. People touch the plaster and paintings leading to further deterioration. Some visitors take away small pieces of stucco or marble which leads to further disintegration. Graffiti continues to be a major problem with vandals even leaving their marks on paintings. Many conservationists believe it is now imperative that visitors should be limited in where they can walk, and what they can visit. However the tourist dollar is used in the restoration and preservation of these sites and any limitation of visitors would cause financial concerns.
The fertility of the region is creating another problem. Over thirty parasitic plant varieties have been found on the site and have attacked the walls and buildings. Vegetation also attacks concrete floors and can totally destroy mosaic floors. On the tops of walls, brambles and fennel take hold, soon forming a great mass of vegetation that results in falling masonry. Ivy is also a problem. It is essential that more money is made available to restore both these sites to an acceptable level and to avoid what some have called the second death of Pompeii.
Authorities have a major role to play in seeing the necessary work is carried out promptly and efficiently. In 1983 authorities in charge of the Pompeii site asked the French archaeologist Jean-Pierre Adam to prepare a technical report on the damage sustained to Pompeii following the tremors of November 1980 and to evaluate all possible methods of restoration. In1984 the European Union awarded the sum of 36 billion lire for this restoration work, the first payment to be made in 1985. However this urgent work was delayed because of administrative conflicts and problems. To some archaeologists Pompeii has become an example of how not to proceed in matters of restoration. Pompeii was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1997. Administrators of both sites have been allowed to use private investment to achieve their outcomes. In 2002 the Pompeii Trust was established in order to try and obtain some of the necessary funds required for preservation and restoration .In 2004 the Packard Humanities financed a $110 million project expected to take ten years to protect and conserve the excavated areas in Herculaneum. However an increase of government input and private sponsorship is necessary, together with international rescue missions, if these two major sites are to meet the challenges of restoration and conservation in the future.
Until more recent times, few people seriously questioned the ethics involved in displaying human remains. However this is now becoming more of an issue particularly with the discovery of many bodies at Herculaneum. A number of questions need to be raised. Do we have a right to examine archaeological sites as they exist or should remains of the dead be removed? Should remains of the dead be reburied where they were found? Is it more acceptable for their remains to be viewed in museums? Should plaster cast representations of the victims in their final moments of agony be classified as bodies or remains of the dead? Some feel viewing the remains of the dead is an invasion of privacy. Others see it as a violation of basic religious beliefs and that the dead should be given a final resting place. Adapted from Paul Latham Teachers Notes Investigating the Past
Herculaneum was not rediscovered until 1594 and serious excavation did not take place until 1709. It was not until 1748 that the first excavation site was opened in Pompeii. To early excavators, Pompeii and Herculaneum were sites to be looted not explored or preserved. Rocco de Alcubierre who excavated at Pompeii in 1748 and later at Herculaneum, seemed more concerned with finding precious objects than preservation and documentation. While archaeologists such as the German Johann Joachim Winckelmann criticised the lack of organisation that existed at the excavation sites, anarchy still existed. It was Karl Weber, director of the excavations at Pompeii in1749 who first proposed that rather than carrying out selective and uncoordinated excavations, they should uncover the site systematically, section by section.
However it was not until 1860 with the appointment of Giuseppi Fiorelli as director of Pompeian excavations, that a more systematic and professional approach was used. Recognising the unparalleled insights that could be gained into the Roman past by careful study of the ruins and all that they contained, Fiorelli set as his goal the total recovery of the vanished city.
A pioneer of modern archaeological methods, Fiorelli instituted a policy of completely clearing one site before moving onto the next, excavating areas between them as well. As Pompeii’s streets, houses, walls and gates began to emerge, Fiorelli developed a grid system and was able to divide the city into regions and blocks (insula) and develop a plan for its systematic recovery from the metres of volcanic debris.
An important feature of Fiorelli’s excavation was his technique of making plaster casts of the dead. Fiorelli pumped liquid plaster into the cavities where flesh and clothing had decayed. This was left to set and the lava chipped away to reveal an accurate plaster cast of the body at the moment of death.
As the digging proceeded, one of Fiorelli’s guiding principles was that new finds, such as frescoes or furniture, be left in place wherever possible. He faithfully documented all his work and set a standard for subsequent excavators.
Fiorelli’s vision of a restored Pompeii encompassed far more work than he could do in his lifetime, but his successors took up both his goal and his disciplined methods of excavation. Foremost among them was the archaeologist Vittorio Spinazzola. From 1910 to 1923, Spinazzola oversaw an ambitious project to uncover the Via dell’Abbondanza. Under his guidance the thoroughfare and the buildings lining it began to take on some of their appearance prior to the eruption.
Following a technique pioneered by Fiorelli, Spinazzola first drilled down to establish the route of the street, then began digging out the structures from above. After removing the debris, he protected any furnishings or frescoes found within buildings and then shored up the walls to prevent them from collapsing when the street itself was cleared.
One of Spinazzola’s outstanding contributions to the restoration of Pompeii was his meticulous reconstruction of the upper stories, windows, balconies and roofs of buildings lining the Via dell’Abbondanza. He was also one of the first archaeologists to document the phases of excavation with photographs.
Amedeo Maiuri was in charge of excavations at Pompeii between 1924 and 1961. He developed a scientific approach to work at Pompeii by excavating the lower levels of the site to provide new evidence of its historical development. He also had greater success than some of his predecessors in restoring houses that had been excavated at various times in the past. From 1924 to 1941 he concentrated on the area around the Via dell’Abbondanza., his main aim being to uncover the insulae on either side of the street.
Maiuri next turned his attention to the southern part of the city between the Via delle Scuole and the Triangular Forum. But Maiuri was not content to pursue his exploration of the buried city as a coherent whole. He felt it was only by deepening the excavations at the most significant, and topographically most important points, the forums, the temples, the city walls and the oldest houses, that they could hope to shed light on the period of the city’s origins.
The appointment of Maiuri also marked the permanent reopening of investigations at Herculaneum. Maiuri abandoned tunnelling and worked methodically from the surface down and held rigorously to the modern practice of leaving as much as possible in place, such as pots on a stove. As the laborious digging proceeded, the town’s character became more apparent, confirming scholar’s speculations.
In September 1943 repeated bombardments by the allies during the war added to the disasters suffered by Pompeii since the earthquake of AD62.
In 1951 work on the site was at last resumed with new resources available. In just over ten years some ten insulae were totally cleared, virtually without documentation let alone publication, and with hardly any of the excavated structures being restored or protected This lead to criticism of his work and techniques. Also buildings excavated in earlier periods continued to decay before being recorded. The increase of tourists, together with worsening atmospheric pollution, exacerbated an already disastrous situation.
Maiuri was succeeded by Alfonso de Franciscis as director of the archaeological service, and he continued with the excavations. In 1977 Fausto Zevi took over as director. He suspended excavation activities and used every available resource for restoration and documentation programs. At Herculaneum, Giuseppi Maggi was director of excavations from 1971 to 1984. In May 1980 his excavation work on the vaulted chambers built into the sea wall revealed more than 150 victims, suggesting that many of the inhabitants may not have survived the catastrophe.
Sara Bisel, an American physical anthropologist and archaeologist who specialised in the analysis of ancient bones, was invited to work in Herculaneum in 1982, to preserve newly found skeletons, excavated by Guiseppe Maggi earlier that year. To Sara Bisel, the well preserved skeletons were just as important as treasures excavated from the sites, particularly as few other skeletons have survived, as the Romans cremated their dead. Her research was valuable as bones indicate much about the people and how they lived.
The skeletons had been well preserved because they had been kept continuously wet by groundwater seeping through the volcanic soil and had not endured temperature or humidity changes. However exposure to air brings about a quick deterioration. Each bone was washed with a soft toothbrush and dried for a few days. Bisel then dipped the bones in an acrylic plastic emulsion and allowed them to dry and harden.
The research by Bisel on dozens of skeletons has provided information about their height, whether they were well nourished, types of diseases and whether the person did manual work for a living. The state of a woman’s pelvis enabled her to determine age and the number of babies she had. An examination of teeth could indicate whether the person had cavities, abscesses or periodontal disease. The research by Bisel has guided artists in fleshing out physical features and portraying how the different people may have looked.
The high level of lead in some of the bones has lead scholars to debate whether lead poisoning could have been widespread among Romans. The most plausible explanation for people having ingested lead via the lead water pipes or from boiling grape syrup in lead vessels.
Estelle Lazer from Sydney University also researched human skeletal remains in Pompeii for evidence of age, sex, height, population affinities and evidence of disease or injury. The research indicated that the victims reflected a broadly representative sample of a normal population. The majority of the deaths were due to asphyxiation, others died of thermal shock caused by the intense heat. Most of the people would have died very quickly. Estelle Lazer made use of modern technology such as CT scans and X- rays, and updated the methods of Fiorelli by using translucent resin instead of plaster.
The American vulcanologist Haraldur Sigurdsson studied the volcanic deposits at Pompeii and Herculaneum in his research on the timing and nature of the eruption in 79AD. The study of the skeletal remains and the way they lay in the strata provided key material for his investigation. The account by Pliny the Elder gave geologic information as to what was happening first at Pompeii and later at Herculaneum. They correlate with data made possible by new vulcanological concepts developed in the 1970s and corroborated since the eruption of Mount St. Helens in the USA. Each phase of the eruption deposits a stratum with a characteristic range of grain sizes. To Sigurdsson grain sizes are the fingerprints of an eruption. They were the ‘bones’ he could investigate.
A Pompeian expert from the University of Maryland in the USA, Professor Wilhelmina Jashemski, spent thirty five years from the 1970’s reconstructing the histories of the city’s gardens and solving the mystery of the Garden of Hercules. She believed that this was a garden where blooms were used for perfumes. Through a careful recovery of surviving pollen grains, as well as carbonised seeds, fruits, vegetables, stems, and traces of root systems, she has enabled botanists to identify the plants Pompeians grew for pleasure, food and profit. Her methods were similar to archaeologists who used impressions left in the debris when bodies decayed to make casts of ancient roots. What Jashemski could not glean from the analysis of roots and other physical remains, she learnt from botanical imagery found in Pompeian art. Samples of soil sent by Jashemski for testing to Professor G W Dimbleby at London University, identified 21 different kinds of pollen grains, but weed pollen was almost entirely absent.
The work of archaeologists and conservationists has also been enhanced by the use of infra-red photography, 3D laser scan technology, spectrographic analysis, x-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, neutron activation analysis, high resolution digital cameras to create a three dimensional model, and sophisticated computer technology.
The excavation of Pompeii and Herculaneum has raised a number of important issues. There is the issue of whether archaeologists should reconstruct a site or leave it as they found it. While the reconstruction of a site may be an act of preservation there is the issue of just how authentic a reconstruction can be. There is also the issue of the types of material used in the reconstruction and the actual methods used. Restoration work requires knowledge of specialised techniques. These conditions have not always been met. There is evidence that restoration work, using for example poor quality concrete and mortar, has actually hastened the deterioration of buildings at both Pompeii and Herculaneum.
In both these sites excavation has been carried on for well over two hundred years with excavators of differing standards, aims and methods. In the early days of excavation, little thought was given to safeguarding a site from damage. Diggers were little more than treasure hunters with little regard for conservation.
Both Pompeii and Herculaneum suffer from tourism and pollution. Millions of visitors visit the sites each year. These visitors inevitably walk around the sites, wearing down footpaths as well as exposed ancient lead pipes. People touch the plaster and paintings leading to further deterioration. Some visitors take away small pieces of stucco or marble which leads to further disintegration. Graffiti continues to be a major problem with vandals even leaving their marks on paintings. Many conservationists believe it is now imperative that visitors should be limited in where they can walk, and what they can visit. However the tourist dollar is used in the restoration and preservation of these sites and any limitation of visitors would cause financial concerns.
The fertility of the region is creating another problem. Over thirty parasitic plant varieties have been found on the site and have attacked the walls and buildings. Vegetation also attacks concrete floors and can totally destroy mosaic floors. On the tops of walls, brambles and fennel take hold, soon forming a great mass of vegetation that results in falling masonry. Ivy is also a problem. It is essential that more money is made available to restore both these sites to an acceptable level and to avoid what some have called the second death of Pompeii.
Authorities have a major role to play in seeing the necessary work is carried out promptly and efficiently. In 1983 authorities in charge of the Pompeii site asked the French archaeologist Jean-Pierre Adam to prepare a technical report on the damage sustained to Pompeii following the tremors of November 1980 and to evaluate all possible methods of restoration. In1984 the European Union awarded the sum of 36 billion lire for this restoration work, the first payment to be made in 1985. However this urgent work was delayed because of administrative conflicts and problems. To some archaeologists Pompeii has become an example of how not to proceed in matters of restoration. Pompeii was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1997. Administrators of both sites have been allowed to use private investment to achieve their outcomes. In 2002 the Pompeii Trust was established in order to try and obtain some of the necessary funds required for preservation and restoration .In 2004 the Packard Humanities financed a $110 million project expected to take ten years to protect and conserve the excavated areas in Herculaneum. However an increase of government input and private sponsorship is necessary, together with international rescue missions, if these two major sites are to meet the challenges of restoration and conservation in the future.
Until more recent times, few people seriously questioned the ethics involved in displaying human remains. However this is now becoming more of an issue particularly with the discovery of many bodies at Herculaneum. A number of questions need to be raised. Do we have a right to examine archaeological sites as they exist or should remains of the dead be removed? Should remains of the dead be reburied where they were found? Is it more acceptable for their remains to be viewed in museums? Should plaster cast representations of the victims in their final moments of agony be classified as bodies or remains of the dead? Some feel viewing the remains of the dead is an invasion of privacy. Others see it as a violation of basic religious beliefs and that the dead should be given a final resting place. Adapted from Paul Latham Teachers Notes Investigating the Past
Web Task:
Open the attached file and complete the web based task on research, restoration and conservation in Pompeii and Herculaneum. |
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Podcast:
First broadcast in 2009 - Conversations with Richard Fidler Sydney University forensic archaeologist Dr Estelle Lazer has spent much of her time knee-deep in the bones of the citizens of Pompeii. The bones reveal so much about those ancient people - how they lived, what they ate, what ailed them, and how they died on that terrible day when Vesuvius erupted in 79AD. Since recording this interview with Richard in 2010, Estelle has been granted permission to X-ray and CT scan all the casts that have been made in Pompeii |
This file contains revision information on the impact of new research and technologies, issues of conservation and reconstruction (Italian and International contributions and responsibilities and the impact of tourism) and ethical issues (human remains).
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Pompeii: Buried Alive Documentary
An older documentary on Pompeii. Interesting section on bones. Recreate the events leading up to the explosion and learn how the ash kept the city and its inhabitants--the only significant discovery of Roman bodies ever--in a unique state of preservation. Wander through the ancient streets of this sophisticated society and witness current excavations. Interviews with archaeologists and historians, extensive location footage, and archival documents-including one remaining eyewitness account-shed eerie light on the cataclysmic eruption of POMPEII, a city frozen in time. (Narrated by Leonard Nimoy) |
This file contains information about three Australian archaeologists - Estelle Lazer, Jaye Mackenzie-Clark and Penelope Allison. Detailed information about their work and projects. Taken from the Board of Studies Ancient History Support Materials.
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