The evidence provided by the sources
The nature of the eruption governed both what was left behind for archaeologists to dig up, and how it was sealed by the deposits of the volcano. ALISON E. COOLEY, POMPEII, P. 37
It is premature to say that we understand Pompeii. It is at once the most studied and least understood of sites. ANDREW WALLACE-HADRILL, HOUSES AND SOCIETY IN POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM, P. 65 Literary Sources Except for Pliny the Younger’s eye witness accounts of the eruption, literary sources are rare and fragmented. Some that are useful include: * Greek philosopher Strabo (64BC – 21AD) who is useful for geographical background and historical setting. * Lucius Annaeus Seneca (4-1BC – 65AD) Roman philosopher Many of the literary sources available for study have a particular focus of enquiry. Pliny the younger: Pliny the Younger is the nephew of Pliny the elder and friend of Tacitus. His works include '‘Letters to Tacitus’ which describe the eruption, the death of his uncle and his own reactions to the disaster. Pliny the Younger experienced the eruption as a teenager and wrote the two letters 25 years later in response to a request by Tacitus. The letters are useful in a number of ways. They are a valuable primary source, both as a historical and scientific document. The letter covers the actions and deeds of his uncle, Pliny the Elder, commander of roman fleet as well as events as viewed from Misenum, less than 30km from Vesuvius. The description of the eruption and events provides geological clues used by modern Vulcanologists as well as eye witness accounts and personal reactions which give us a different understanding of the eruption. The 'Letter's provide two geographical viewpoints (Stabiae and Misenum) however he does not mention the overwhelming of Pompeii and Herculaneum. He does not record the year and makes no mention of the tremendous detenation that must have preceded the eruption; it seems strange that an eyewitness would neglect to write so much. The reliability of his letters must also be questioned as he uses second hand accounts of his fathers' death, gathering information from those who were nearhim when he died who were undoubtedly traumatized, and in the employ of the household. There is also no evidence that the letters were written until twenty five years after the eruption. The account is also concerned with celebrating the life, bravery and actions of Pliny the Elder, and therefore the account may be unreliable The Archaeological record The archaeological record in Pompeii and Herculaneum is unique. Historians can paint a picture of what everyday life was like in Pompeii, thanks to a wide array of sources available to them. This snapshot of life is not limited, like in formal written histories in antiquity, to the picture presented by men. It provides a true social history - regardless of gender, age, social status and race. The large amount and the diverse range of sources available in Pompeii and Herculaneum provide authenticity and allow historians to understand the society in a unique way. However, due to neglect and treasure hunting that formed the basis of early excavations, much evidence was compromised and removed. This adds difficulty in interpreting finds. International teams study the evidence of Pompeii and Herculaneum continually. Modern archaeological projects at Pompeii and Herculaneum often draw conclusions that question widely held concepts about Roman life, ask different questions about the material finds, shift away from certainty towards multiple and varied interpretations, and recognise that the archaeological practices of the past have shaped modern interpretations. These sources provide us with evidence for: -the eruption. -the economy: trade, commerce, industries, occupations, -social structure; men, women, freedmen, slaves. local political life, ----everyday life: leisure activities, food and dining, clothing, health, baths, water, supply and sanitation, -public buildings basilicas, temples, fora, theatres, palaestra, amphitheatre, -private buildings – villas, houses, shops, -influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures: art, architecture, religion, - religion: temples, household gods, foreign cults, tombs.
PRIMARY SOURCES FROM POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM
Classical Writing (Literary) Appian (History) Cicero (Speeches from a politician) Cato (Geography) Dio Cassius (History, wrote about the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius) Florus (History) Livy (History) Pliny the Elder (Geography and Travel) Pliny the Younger (Letters writing specifically about the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius as an eye witness) Seneca (Geography, wrote about the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius) Strabo (Geography and Travel) Statius (Poems) Tacitus (History) Vitruvius (Architecture) Ephigraphical Writing (Literary) Graffiti Slogans and Programmata Entertainment programs Tomb epitaphs Dedications in stone and bronze on buildings and statues Inscriptions on jewellery Foundation stones Wax tablets Proclamations Scrolls of papyri (only at Herculaneum) Buildings (Public and Private) (Archaeological) Thermopolium, Caupura Baths, Amphitheatre, and Basilica Temples and streetscapes Private houses/units, Villas and Villa rustica Forum, Building of Eumachia and Macellum Fullonica, Taberna and Pistrinum Odeon and Palaestra Artefacts (Material Remains) Mosaic. A picture or decoration made of different coloured pieces of stone, glass or other material, inlaid to form a simply or elaborate design. Usually mosaics appeared on the floor either inside or outside. Due to their intricate design and beauty they have become famous sources from Pompeii and Herculaneum. Fresco. A painting on either wet or dry fresh lime plaster so that the pigments are absorbed into the layers of the plaster. Usually frescos appeared on i nternal or external walls and incorporated pictures and designs. Due to their detail, mystery and beauty they have become famous sources from Pompeii and Herculaneum. Public water fountains and water pipes. Cooking equipment, eating utensils and ovens. Tools, Weights and measures, Work equipment. Household shrines, statues and busts. Wooden furniture (only at Herculaneum). Farming equipment. Pottery, Jewellery, Glassware and Columns. Organic Plant Products Grain, farming, vineyard and orchard remains. Remains of private gardens. Cooked food remains and meal remains, eg. bread. Oil remains, Wine remains, Perfume remains. Human and Animal Remains Skeletal remains of humans and animals. Plaster and resin cast showing the shape of the body. SECONDARY SOURCES ABOUT POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM Modern Secondary Writing Giuseppe Fiorelli (director of archaeology at Pompeii and Herculaneum). Vittorio Spinazzola (director of archaeology at Pompeii and Herculaneum). Amedeo Maiuri (director of archaeology at Pompeii and Herculaneum). Andrew Wallace-Hadrill (1994) (British Archaeologist). Penelope Allison (1992) (Australian Archaeologist). Lawrence Richardson (1988) (Architectural historian). Haraldur Sigurdsson (2002) (Volcanologist). Eva Cantarella and Luciana Jacobelli (2003) (Archaeologists). Sara Bisel (1990) (American archaeologist studying bones and bodies). Estelle Lazer (2005) (Australian archaeologist studying bones and bodies). The Eruption of Vesuvius Early August – warnings • Earth tremors, wells and springs dried up, waves increased in size and animals became agitated • Few people appeared to have noticed Morning of 24 August • Minor explosions (phreatomagmatic), showers of fine tephra • Few people appeared to have noticed ‘Plinian’ eruption • Late morning to early afternoon, an umbrella-shaped cloud moved east; white pumice fell over Pompeii and day turned to night. By 8 pm, there were heavy falls of greypumice, tremors and electrical storms • Some Pompeians fled immediately, others delayed, many took shelter in sealed rooms and cellars from which they never emerged. Many of those at Herculaneum escaped by sea; others remained. Pliny the Elder, Admiral of the Roman fleet at Misenum, launched warships to rescue those caught on the coast. Sailed to Stabiae ‘Peléan’ phase: pyroclastic surges and flows • Between 1 am and 8 am, 25 August, the towns of Vesuvius were hit by six surges (billowing volcanic ash and superheated gases) and flows (larger volcanic fragments made fluid by high temperatures) • The inhabitants of Herculaneum who had not already escaped waited on the beach to be rescued, but died in S1 by asphyxiation and thermal shock, and the town was sealed forever in S2 • Pompeii was hit by the subsequent surges S3–S6, and people were killed, as at Herculaneum, by thermal shock and asphyxiation. Pliny the Elder died on the beach at Stabiae, while Pliny the Younger and his mother escaped Misenum just before the final surge The Cities, Their Population and Social Structure Urban layout • Walls and gates • Grid systems of roads – decumani and cardini • Paved roads, well-made footpaths, raised pedestrian crossings in Pompeii • Good drainage system in Herculaneum • Public water supply – cistern, lead main pipes, water towers, elaborate network of pipes, public fountains • A jigsaw of various sized houses, workshops, shops, taverns and cultivated areas • Forum in Pompeii – administrative, commercial and religious centre – a paved rectangular area, colonnades, statues, formal inscriptions and public buildings: temples, markets, a basilica (law courts and business transactions) and shrines associated with imperial cult Population and social structure • No definitive figures for total population • Campania – a melting pot of cultures, diverse genetic background • Work of Estelle Lazer and Sara Bisel, based on a small sample, reveal a generally wellnourished and healthy population. Some incidence of age-related diseases and dental problems • Structure of society – freeborn (ingenui), freed slaves (libertus and liberta) and slaves • Wealthy freeborn had a network of friends, clients and dependants. Some freedmen and women very wealthy. Boundaries between freeborn, freed slave and slave were somewhat fluid • Women active in economic, political and religious life • Three prominent women – Julia Felix, Eumachia and Mamia Commercial and Political Life The economy • The commercial nature of the cities was based on agricultural production and fishing – wool, olive oil, wine, grain, vegetables, fruit, fish and crustaceans • City markets – Macellum: fish, meat and vegetables; Olitorium: granary; Eumachia Building: possible wool and cloth; itinerant traders and pedlars all over the city on market day, particularly around the forum • Villa rusticae: estates that produced wine and oil, e.g. Villa of Pisanella at Boscoreale • Garum manufacture – fish sauce for flavouring food • Workshops (officinae) – washing and dyeing of wool and laundries, bakeries, tanneries, perfume, pottery, wheelwrights, ironmongers, goldsmiths, silversmiths and carpenters. The importance of craft guilds • Shops (tabernae) – numerous shops for selling foodstuffs as well as hot food snack bars (thermopolia), and numerous wine bars and taverns (cuponae) Politics • Intense political interest and competition for office indicated by the 2500 political manifestos • Eligibility for high office: men of honour, virtue and uprightness, as well as an expectation to make generous contributions to the city • The executive comprised a Board of Four (quattuorviri) or two pairs of officials: duoviri and aediles and every five years the magistrates (quinquennial duoviri) conducted the census • Duoviri administered the city (roads, markets, sewerage, the maintenance of order and sponsorship of spectacles and theatre) as well as being responsible for criminal and civil cases • City Council (ordo decurionum) made up of 100 former magistrates (decurions) who held their position for life. Debated on issues affecting the city and gave instructions to Board of Four • Election fever took hold of the city every March with each candidate’s supporters writing slogans and manifestos on city walls. Women played a major role in influencing voters |
Sources: Pliny the Younger - Letters to Tacitus
6.16 Pliny to Cornelius Tacitus
Thank you for asking me to send you a description of my uncle's death so that you can leave an accurate account of it for posterity; I know that immortal fame awaits him if his death is recorded by you. It is true that he perished in a catastrophe which destroyed the loveliest regions of the earth, a fate shared by whole cities and their people, and one so memorable that is likely to make his name live for ever: and he himself wrote a number of books of lasting value: but you write for all time and can still do much to perpetuate his memory. The fortunate man, in my opinion, is he to whom the gods have granted the power either to do something which is worth recording or to write what is worth reading, and most fortunate of all is the man who can do both. Such a man was my uncle, as his own books and yours will prove. So you set me a task I would choose for myself, and I am more than willing to start on it.
My uncle was stationed at Misenum, in active command of the fleet. On 24 August, in the early afternoon, my mother drew his attention to a cloud of unusual size and appearance. He had been out in the sun, had taken a cold bath, and lunched while lying down, and was then working at his books. He called for his shoes and climbed up to a place which would give him the best view of the phenomenon. It was not clear at that distance from which mountain the cloud was rising (it was afterwards known to be Vesuvius); its general appearance can be best expressed as being like an umbrella pine, for it rose to a great height on a sort of trunk and then split off into branches, I imagine because it was thrust upwards by the first blast and then left unsupported as the pressure subsided, or else it was borne down by its own weight so that it spread out and gradually dispersed. Sometimes it looked white, sometimes blotched and dirty, according to the amount of soil and ashes it carried with it. My uncle's scholarly acumen saw at once that it was important enough for a closer inspection, and he ordered a boat to be made ready, telling me I could come with him if I wished. I replied that I preferred to go on with my studies, and as it happened he had himself given me some writing to do.
As he was leaving the house, he was handed a message from Rectina, wife of Tascius whose house was at the foot of the mountain, so that escape was impossible except by boat. She was terrified by the danger threatening her and implored him to rescue her from her fate. He changed his plans, and what he had begun in a spirit of inquiry he completed as a hero. He gave orders for the warships to be launched and went on board himself with the intention of bringing help to many more people besides Rectina, for this lovely stretch of coast was thickly populated. He hurried to the place which everyone else was hastily leaving, steering his course straight for the danger zone. He was entirely fearless, describing each new movement and phase of the portent to be noted down exactly as he observed them. Ashes were already falling, hotter and thicker as the ships drew near, followed by bits of pumice and blackened stones, charred and cracked by the flames: then suddenly they were in shallow water, and the shore was blocked by the debris from the mountain. For a moment my uncle wondered whether to turn back, but when the helmsman advised this he refused, telling him that Fortune stood by the courageous and they must make for Pomponianus at Stabiae. He was cut off there by the breadth of the bay (for the shore gradually curves round a basin filled by the sea) so that he was not as yet in danger, though it was clear that this would come nearer as it spread. Pomponianus had therefore already put his belongings on board ship, intending to escape if the contrary wind fell. This wind was of course full in my uncle's favour, and he was able to bring his ship in. He embraced his terrified friend, cheered and encouraged him, and thinking he could calm his fears by showing his own composure, gave orders that he was to be carried to the bathroom. After his bath he lay down and dined ; he was quite cheerful, or at any rate he pretended he was, which was no less courageous.
Meanwhile on Mount Vesuvius broad sheets of fire and leaping flames blazed at several points, their bright glare emphasized by the darkness of night. My uncle tried to allay the fears of his companions by repeatedly declaring that these were nothing but bonfires left by the peasants in their terror, or else empty houses on fire in the districts they had abandoned. Then he went to rest and certainly slept, for as he was a stout man his breathing was rather loud and heavy and could be heard by people coming and going outside his door. By this time the courtyard giving access to his room was full of ashes mixed with pumice-stones, so that its level had risen, and if he had stayed in the room any longer he would never have got out. He was wakened, came out and joined Pomponianus and the rest of the household who had sat up all night. They debated whether to stay indoors or take their chance in the open, for the buildings were now shaking with violent shocks, and seemed to be swaying to and fro, as if they were torn from their foundations. Outside on the other hand, there was the danger of falling pumice-stones, even though these were light and porous; however, after comparing the risks they chose the latter. In my uncle's case one reason outweighed the other, but for the others it was a choice of fears. As a protection against falling objects they put pillows on their heads tied down with cloths.
Elsewhere there was daylight by this time, but they were still in darkness, blacker and denser than any ordinary night, which they relieved by lighting torches and various kinds of lamp. My uncle decided to go down to the shore and investigate on the spot the possibility of any escape by sea, but he found the waves still wild and dangerous. A sheet was spread on the ground for him to lie down, and he repeatedly asked for cold water to drink. Then the flames and smell of sulphur which gave warning of the approaching fire drove the others to take flight and roused him to stand up. He stood leaning on two slaves and then suddenly collapsed, I imagine because the dense fumes choked his breathing by blocking his windpipe which was constitutionally weak and narrow and often inflamed. When daylight returned on the 26th—two days after the last day he had seen—his body was found intact and uninjured, still fully clothed and looking more like sleep than death.
Meanwhile my mother and I were at Misenum, but this is not of any historic interest, and you only wanted to hear about my uncle’s death. I will say no more, except to add that I have described in detail every incident which I either witnessed myself or heard about immediately after the event, when reports were most likely to be accurate. It is for you to select what best suits your purpose, for there is a great difference between a letter to a friend and history written for all to read. Pliny the Younger, Letters 6.16
Thank you for asking me to send you a description of my uncle's death so that you can leave an accurate account of it for posterity; I know that immortal fame awaits him if his death is recorded by you. It is true that he perished in a catastrophe which destroyed the loveliest regions of the earth, a fate shared by whole cities and their people, and one so memorable that is likely to make his name live for ever: and he himself wrote a number of books of lasting value: but you write for all time and can still do much to perpetuate his memory. The fortunate man, in my opinion, is he to whom the gods have granted the power either to do something which is worth recording or to write what is worth reading, and most fortunate of all is the man who can do both. Such a man was my uncle, as his own books and yours will prove. So you set me a task I would choose for myself, and I am more than willing to start on it.
My uncle was stationed at Misenum, in active command of the fleet. On 24 August, in the early afternoon, my mother drew his attention to a cloud of unusual size and appearance. He had been out in the sun, had taken a cold bath, and lunched while lying down, and was then working at his books. He called for his shoes and climbed up to a place which would give him the best view of the phenomenon. It was not clear at that distance from which mountain the cloud was rising (it was afterwards known to be Vesuvius); its general appearance can be best expressed as being like an umbrella pine, for it rose to a great height on a sort of trunk and then split off into branches, I imagine because it was thrust upwards by the first blast and then left unsupported as the pressure subsided, or else it was borne down by its own weight so that it spread out and gradually dispersed. Sometimes it looked white, sometimes blotched and dirty, according to the amount of soil and ashes it carried with it. My uncle's scholarly acumen saw at once that it was important enough for a closer inspection, and he ordered a boat to be made ready, telling me I could come with him if I wished. I replied that I preferred to go on with my studies, and as it happened he had himself given me some writing to do.
As he was leaving the house, he was handed a message from Rectina, wife of Tascius whose house was at the foot of the mountain, so that escape was impossible except by boat. She was terrified by the danger threatening her and implored him to rescue her from her fate. He changed his plans, and what he had begun in a spirit of inquiry he completed as a hero. He gave orders for the warships to be launched and went on board himself with the intention of bringing help to many more people besides Rectina, for this lovely stretch of coast was thickly populated. He hurried to the place which everyone else was hastily leaving, steering his course straight for the danger zone. He was entirely fearless, describing each new movement and phase of the portent to be noted down exactly as he observed them. Ashes were already falling, hotter and thicker as the ships drew near, followed by bits of pumice and blackened stones, charred and cracked by the flames: then suddenly they were in shallow water, and the shore was blocked by the debris from the mountain. For a moment my uncle wondered whether to turn back, but when the helmsman advised this he refused, telling him that Fortune stood by the courageous and they must make for Pomponianus at Stabiae. He was cut off there by the breadth of the bay (for the shore gradually curves round a basin filled by the sea) so that he was not as yet in danger, though it was clear that this would come nearer as it spread. Pomponianus had therefore already put his belongings on board ship, intending to escape if the contrary wind fell. This wind was of course full in my uncle's favour, and he was able to bring his ship in. He embraced his terrified friend, cheered and encouraged him, and thinking he could calm his fears by showing his own composure, gave orders that he was to be carried to the bathroom. After his bath he lay down and dined ; he was quite cheerful, or at any rate he pretended he was, which was no less courageous.
Meanwhile on Mount Vesuvius broad sheets of fire and leaping flames blazed at several points, their bright glare emphasized by the darkness of night. My uncle tried to allay the fears of his companions by repeatedly declaring that these were nothing but bonfires left by the peasants in their terror, or else empty houses on fire in the districts they had abandoned. Then he went to rest and certainly slept, for as he was a stout man his breathing was rather loud and heavy and could be heard by people coming and going outside his door. By this time the courtyard giving access to his room was full of ashes mixed with pumice-stones, so that its level had risen, and if he had stayed in the room any longer he would never have got out. He was wakened, came out and joined Pomponianus and the rest of the household who had sat up all night. They debated whether to stay indoors or take their chance in the open, for the buildings were now shaking with violent shocks, and seemed to be swaying to and fro, as if they were torn from their foundations. Outside on the other hand, there was the danger of falling pumice-stones, even though these were light and porous; however, after comparing the risks they chose the latter. In my uncle's case one reason outweighed the other, but for the others it was a choice of fears. As a protection against falling objects they put pillows on their heads tied down with cloths.
Elsewhere there was daylight by this time, but they were still in darkness, blacker and denser than any ordinary night, which they relieved by lighting torches and various kinds of lamp. My uncle decided to go down to the shore and investigate on the spot the possibility of any escape by sea, but he found the waves still wild and dangerous. A sheet was spread on the ground for him to lie down, and he repeatedly asked for cold water to drink. Then the flames and smell of sulphur which gave warning of the approaching fire drove the others to take flight and roused him to stand up. He stood leaning on two slaves and then suddenly collapsed, I imagine because the dense fumes choked his breathing by blocking his windpipe which was constitutionally weak and narrow and often inflamed. When daylight returned on the 26th—two days after the last day he had seen—his body was found intact and uninjured, still fully clothed and looking more like sleep than death.
Meanwhile my mother and I were at Misenum, but this is not of any historic interest, and you only wanted to hear about my uncle’s death. I will say no more, except to add that I have described in detail every incident which I either witnessed myself or heard about immediately after the event, when reports were most likely to be accurate. It is for you to select what best suits your purpose, for there is a great difference between a letter to a friend and history written for all to read. Pliny the Younger, Letters 6.16
6.20. Pliny to Cornelius Tacitus
So the letter which you asked me to write on my uncle's death has made you eager to hear about the terrors and hazards I had to face when left at Misenum, for I broke off at the beginning of this part of my story. "Though my mind shrinks from remembering…I will begin."
After my uncle's departure I spent the rest of the day with my books, as this was my reason for staying behind. Then I took a bath, dined, and then dozed fitfully for a while. For several days past there had been earth tremors which were not particularly alarming because they are frequent in Campania: but that night the shocks were so violent that everything felt as if it were not only shaken but overturned. My mother hurried into my room and found me already getting up to wake her if she were still asleep. We sat down in the forecourt of the house, between the buildings and the sea close by. I don't know whether I should call this courage or folly on my part (I was only seventeen at the time) but I called for a volume of Livy and went on reading as if I had nothing else to do. I even went on with the extracts I had been making. Up came a friend of my uncle's who had just come from Spain to join him. When he saw us sitting there and me actually reading, he scolded us both—me for my foolhardiness and my mother for allowing it. Nevertheless, I remained absorbed in my book.
By now it was dawn, but the light was still dim and faint. The buildings round us were already tottering, and the open space we were in was too small for us not to be in real and imminent danger if the house collapsed. This finally decided us to leave the town. We were followed by a panic-stricken mob of people wanting to act on someone else’s decision in preference to their own (a point in which fear looks like prudence), who hurried us on our way by pressing hard behind in a dense crowd. Once beyond the buildings we stopped, and there we had some extraordinary experiences which thoroughly alarmed us. The carriages we had ordered to be brought out began to run in different directions though the ground was quite level, and would not remain stationary even when wedged with stones. We also saw the sea sucked away and apparently forced back by the earthquake: at any rate it receded from the shore so that quantities of sea creatures were left stranded on dry sand. On the landward side a fearful black cloud was rent by forked and quivering bursts of flame, and parted to reveal great tongues of fire, like flashes of lightning magnified in size.
At this point my uncle’s friend from Spain spoke up still more urgently: "If your brother, if your uncle is still alive, he will want you both to be saved; if he is dead, he would want you to survive him—why put off your escape?" We replied that we would not think of considering our own safety as long as we were uncertain of his. Without waiting any longer, our friend rushed off and hurried out of danger as fast as he could.
Soon afterwards the cloud sank down to earth and covered the sea; it had already blotted out Capri and hidden the promontory of Misenum from sight. Then my mother implored, entreated and commanded me to escape the best I could—a young man might escape, whereas she was old and slow and could die in peace as long as she had not been the cause of my death too. I refused to save myself without her, and grasping her hand forced her to quicken her pace. She gave in reluctantly, blaming herself for delaying me. Ashes were already falling, not as yet very thickly. I looked round: a dense black cloud was coming up behind us, spreading over the earth like a flood. "Let us leave the road while we can still see," I said, "or we shall be knocked down and trampled underfoot in the dark by the crowd behind." We had scarcely sat down to rest when darkness fell, not the dark of a moonless or cloudy night, but as if the lamp had been put out in a closed room. You could hear the shrieks of women, the wailing of infants, and the shouting of men; some were calling their parents, others their children or their wives, trying to recognize them by their voices. People bewailed their own fate or that of their relatives, and there were some who prayed for death in their terror of dying. Many besought the aid of the gods, but still more imagined there were no gods left, and that the universe was plunged into eternal darkness for evermore. There were people, too, who added to the real perils by inventing fictitious dangers: some reported that part of Misenum had collapsed or another part was on fire, and though their tales were false they found others to believe them. A gleam of light returned, but we took this to be a warning of the approaching flames rather than daylight. However, the flames remained some distance off; then darkness came on once more and ashes began to fall again, this time in heavy showers. We rose from time to time and shook them off, otherwise we should have been buried and crushed beneath their weight. I could boast that not a groan or cry of fear escaped me in these perils, had I not derived some poor consolation in my mortal lot from the belief that the whole world was dying with me and I with it.
At last the darkness thinned and dispersed into smoke or cloud; then there was genuine daylight, and the sun actually shone out, but yellowish as it is during an eclipse. We were terrified to see everything changed, buried deep in ashes like snowdrifts. We returned to Misenum where we attended to our physical needs as best we could, and then spent an anxious night alternating between hope and fear. Fear predominated, for the earthquakes went on, and several hysterical individuals made their own and other people’s calamities seem ludicrous in comparison with their frightful predictions. But even then, in spite of the dangers we had been through, and were still expecting, my mother and I had still no intention of leaving until we had news of my uncle.
Of course these details are not important enough for history, and you will read them without any idea of recording them; if they seem scarcely worth putting in a letter, you have only yourself to blame for asking them. Pliny the Younger, Letters 6.20
So the letter which you asked me to write on my uncle's death has made you eager to hear about the terrors and hazards I had to face when left at Misenum, for I broke off at the beginning of this part of my story. "Though my mind shrinks from remembering…I will begin."
After my uncle's departure I spent the rest of the day with my books, as this was my reason for staying behind. Then I took a bath, dined, and then dozed fitfully for a while. For several days past there had been earth tremors which were not particularly alarming because they are frequent in Campania: but that night the shocks were so violent that everything felt as if it were not only shaken but overturned. My mother hurried into my room and found me already getting up to wake her if she were still asleep. We sat down in the forecourt of the house, between the buildings and the sea close by. I don't know whether I should call this courage or folly on my part (I was only seventeen at the time) but I called for a volume of Livy and went on reading as if I had nothing else to do. I even went on with the extracts I had been making. Up came a friend of my uncle's who had just come from Spain to join him. When he saw us sitting there and me actually reading, he scolded us both—me for my foolhardiness and my mother for allowing it. Nevertheless, I remained absorbed in my book.
By now it was dawn, but the light was still dim and faint. The buildings round us were already tottering, and the open space we were in was too small for us not to be in real and imminent danger if the house collapsed. This finally decided us to leave the town. We were followed by a panic-stricken mob of people wanting to act on someone else’s decision in preference to their own (a point in which fear looks like prudence), who hurried us on our way by pressing hard behind in a dense crowd. Once beyond the buildings we stopped, and there we had some extraordinary experiences which thoroughly alarmed us. The carriages we had ordered to be brought out began to run in different directions though the ground was quite level, and would not remain stationary even when wedged with stones. We also saw the sea sucked away and apparently forced back by the earthquake: at any rate it receded from the shore so that quantities of sea creatures were left stranded on dry sand. On the landward side a fearful black cloud was rent by forked and quivering bursts of flame, and parted to reveal great tongues of fire, like flashes of lightning magnified in size.
At this point my uncle’s friend from Spain spoke up still more urgently: "If your brother, if your uncle is still alive, he will want you both to be saved; if he is dead, he would want you to survive him—why put off your escape?" We replied that we would not think of considering our own safety as long as we were uncertain of his. Without waiting any longer, our friend rushed off and hurried out of danger as fast as he could.
Soon afterwards the cloud sank down to earth and covered the sea; it had already blotted out Capri and hidden the promontory of Misenum from sight. Then my mother implored, entreated and commanded me to escape the best I could—a young man might escape, whereas she was old and slow and could die in peace as long as she had not been the cause of my death too. I refused to save myself without her, and grasping her hand forced her to quicken her pace. She gave in reluctantly, blaming herself for delaying me. Ashes were already falling, not as yet very thickly. I looked round: a dense black cloud was coming up behind us, spreading over the earth like a flood. "Let us leave the road while we can still see," I said, "or we shall be knocked down and trampled underfoot in the dark by the crowd behind." We had scarcely sat down to rest when darkness fell, not the dark of a moonless or cloudy night, but as if the lamp had been put out in a closed room. You could hear the shrieks of women, the wailing of infants, and the shouting of men; some were calling their parents, others their children or their wives, trying to recognize them by their voices. People bewailed their own fate or that of their relatives, and there were some who prayed for death in their terror of dying. Many besought the aid of the gods, but still more imagined there were no gods left, and that the universe was plunged into eternal darkness for evermore. There were people, too, who added to the real perils by inventing fictitious dangers: some reported that part of Misenum had collapsed or another part was on fire, and though their tales were false they found others to believe them. A gleam of light returned, but we took this to be a warning of the approaching flames rather than daylight. However, the flames remained some distance off; then darkness came on once more and ashes began to fall again, this time in heavy showers. We rose from time to time and shook them off, otherwise we should have been buried and crushed beneath their weight. I could boast that not a groan or cry of fear escaped me in these perils, had I not derived some poor consolation in my mortal lot from the belief that the whole world was dying with me and I with it.
At last the darkness thinned and dispersed into smoke or cloud; then there was genuine daylight, and the sun actually shone out, but yellowish as it is during an eclipse. We were terrified to see everything changed, buried deep in ashes like snowdrifts. We returned to Misenum where we attended to our physical needs as best we could, and then spent an anxious night alternating between hope and fear. Fear predominated, for the earthquakes went on, and several hysterical individuals made their own and other people’s calamities seem ludicrous in comparison with their frightful predictions. But even then, in spite of the dangers we had been through, and were still expecting, my mother and I had still no intention of leaving until we had news of my uncle.
Of course these details are not important enough for history, and you will read them without any idea of recording them; if they seem scarcely worth putting in a letter, you have only yourself to blame for asking them. Pliny the Younger, Letters 6.20
|
THE OTHER POMPEII - LIFE AND DEATH IN HERCULANEUM
Published on Apr 4, 2013 First broadcast: BBC Two, 9:00PM Mon, 1 Apr 2013 Professor Andrew Wallace-Hadrill presents a documentary following the scientific investigation that aims to lift the lid on what life was like in the small Roman town of Herculaneum, moments before it was destroyed by a volcanic eruption. POMPEII: Life and Death in a Roman Town Pompeii: one of the most famous volcanic eruptions in history. We know how its victims died, but this film sets out to answer another question - how did they live? Gleaning evidence from an extraordinary find, Cambridge professor and Pompeii expert Mary Beard provides new insight into the lives of the people who lived in the shadow of Mount Vesuvius before its cataclysmic eruption. Sex in the Ancient World: Pompeii 2009: Sex in the Ancient World Pompeii: This intriguing look at the sexual practices of ages past focuses on the infamous location of Pompeii, home to the oldest known brothel in the historical world. With commentary from historians and archaeologists, the film explains how issues like prostitution and sexual slavery affected the world of ancient Rome. This video is pretty sensationalised but it does have Andrew Wallace Hadrill <3 AND it's narrated by Spock! NB: The volume doesn't kick in til about 30 seconds in. POMPEII: LIVE Documentary filmed at the British Museum as part of their Pompeii exhibition National Geographic - The Real Pompeii Pompeii is one of the world's most famous and valuable archaeological sites, gained through one of history's most terrible natural disasters. In one of the greatest city ever lost, many secrets still await discovery even centuries after the burn. |